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<title>Gotthold Ephraim Lessing</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Gotthold Ephraim Lessing</span></span>

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</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div style="display:inline;" class="fn">Gotthold Ephraim Lessing</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:1.4em;">Portrait of Lessing by <a href="Anna_Rosina_de_Gasc" title="Anna Rosina de Gasc">Anna Rosina Lisiewska</a> during his time as dramaturg of <a href="Abel_Seyler" title="Abel Seyler">Abel Seyler</a>'s <a href="Hamburgische_Entreprise" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamburgische Entreprise">Hamburg National Theatre</a> (1767/1768)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Born</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1729-01-22</span>)</span>22 January 1729<br><a href="Kamenz" title="Kamenz">Kamenz</a>, <a href="Upper_Lusatia" title="Upper Lusatia">Upper Lusatia</a>, <a href="Electorate_of_Saxony" title="Electorate of Saxony">Saxony</a>, <a href="Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Died</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;">15 February 1781<span style="display:none">(1781-02-15)</span> (aged 52)<br><a href="Braunschweig" title="Braunschweig">Braunschweig</a>, <a href="Duchy_of_Brunswick-L%C3%BCneburg" title="Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg">Brunswick-Lüneburg</a>, Holy Roman Empire</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Occupation</th><td class="infobox-data role" style="line-height:1.4em;">Writer, philosopher, <a href="Dramatist" class="mw-redirect" title="Dramatist">dramatist</a>, <a href="Publicist" title="Publicist">publicist</a>, <a href="Art_critic" title="Art critic">art critic</a>, and <a href="Dramaturg" class="mw-redirect" title="Dramaturg">dramaturg</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><a href="Leipzig_University" title="Leipzig University">Leipzig University</a><br><a href="Martin_Luther_University_of_Halle-Wittenberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg">University of Wittenberg</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Notable works</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><i><a href="Miss_Sara_Sampson" title="Miss Sara Sampson">Miss Sara Sampson</a></i>, <i><a href="Emilia_Galotti" title="Emilia Galotti">Emilia Galotti</a></i>, <i><a href="Minna_von_Barnhelm" title="Minna von Barnhelm">Minna von Barnhelm</a></i>, <i><a href="Nathan_the_Wise" title="Nathan the Wise">Nathan the Wise</a></i>, <i>Laocoön</i>, <i><a href="Hamburgische_Dramaturgie" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamburgische Dramaturgie">Hamburgische Dramaturgie</a></i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><a href="Eva_K%C3%B6nig" title="Eva König">Eva König</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"></span></td></tr></tbody></table>

<p><b>Gotthold Ephraim Lessing</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="/ŋ/: 'ng' in 'sing'">ŋ</span></span>/</span></span>;<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">

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</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">German:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="de-Latn-fonipa">[ˈɡɔthɔlt<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈʔeːfʁa.ɪm<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈlɛsɪŋ]</span> <span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/3\/30\/De-Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing.ogg\/De-Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"De-Gotthold Ephraim Lessing.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/30/De-Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing.ogg/De-Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable">ⓘ</sup></span>; 22 January 1729 – 15 February 1781) was a German <a href="Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a>, <a href="Dramatist" class="mw-redirect" title="Dramatist">dramatist</a>, <a href="Publicist" title="Publicist">publicist</a> and <a href="Art_critic" title="Art critic">art critic</a>, and a representative of <a href="The_Enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="The Enlightenment">the Enlightenment</a> era. His plays and theoretical writings substantially influenced the development of <a href="German_literature" title="German literature">German literature</a>. He is widely considered by theatre historians to be the first <a href="Dramaturg" class="mw-redirect" title="Dramaturg">dramaturg</a> in his role at <a href="Abel_Seyler" title="Abel Seyler">Abel Seyler</a>'s <a href="Hamburgische_Entreprise" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamburgische Entreprise">Hamburg National Theatre</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The word <a href="Dramaturgy" title="Dramaturgy">Dramaturgy</a> first appears in his work <i><a href="Hamburg_Dramaturgy" title="Hamburg Dramaturgy">Hamburg Dramaturgy</a>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<p>Lessing was born in <a href="Kamenz" title="Kamenz">Kamenz</a>, a small town in <a href="Electorate_of_Saxony" title="Electorate of Saxony">Saxony</a>, to pastor and theologian Johann Gottfried Lessing (1693–1770) and his wife Justine Salome Feller (1703–1777), daughter of pastor of <a href="Kamenz" title="Kamenz">Kamenz</a>, Gottfried Feller (1674–1733). His father was a Lutheran minister and wrote on theology. Young Lessing studied at the Latin School in Kamenz from 1737 to 1741. With a father who wanted his son to follow in his footsteps, Lessing next attended the <a href="S%C3%A4chsisches_Landesgymnasium_Sankt_Afra_zu_Mei%C3%9Fen" title="Sächsisches Landesgymnasium Sankt Afra zu Meißen">Fürstenschule St. Afra</a> in <a href="Meissen" title="Meissen">Meissen</a>. After completing his education at St. Afra's, he enrolled at <a href="Leipzig_University" title="Leipzig University">Leipzig University</a> where he pursued a degree in theology, medicine, philosophy, and philology (1746–1748).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>It was here that his relationship with <a href="Friederike_Caroline_Neuber" title="Friederike Caroline Neuber">Karoline Neuber</a>, a famous German actress, began. He translated several French plays for her, and his interest in theatre grew. During this time, he wrote his first play, <i>The Young Scholar.</i> Neuber eventually produced the play in 1748.

</p><p>From 1748 to 1760, Lessing lived in Leipzig and Berlin. He began to work as a reviewer and editor for the <i><a href="Vossische_Zeitung" title="Vossische Zeitung">Vossische Zeitung</a></i> and other periodicals. Lessing formed a close connection with his cousin, Christlob Mylius, and decided to follow him to Berlin. In 1750, Lessing and Mylius teamed together to begin a periodical publication named <i>Beiträge zur Historie und Aufnahme des Theaters</i>. The publication ran only four issues, but it caught the public's eye and revealed Lessing to be a serious critic and theorist of drama.

</p><p>In 1752, he took his master's degree in <a href="University_of_Wittenberg" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Wittenberg">Wittenberg</a>. From 1760 to 1765, he worked in <a href="Breslau" class="mw-redirect" title="Breslau">Breslau</a> (now <a href="Wroc%C5%82aw" title="Wrocław">Wrocław</a>) as secretary to <a href="Friedrich_Bogislav_von_Tauentzien" title="Friedrich Bogislav von Tauentzien">General Tauentzien</a> during the <a href="Seven_Years'_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> between Britain and France, which had effects in Europe. It was during this time that he wrote his famous <i>Laocoön, or the Limitations of Poetry</i>.

</p><p>In 1765, Lessing returned to Berlin, leaving in 1767 to work for three years at the <a href="Hamburg_National_Theatre" title="Hamburg National Theatre">Hamburg National Theatre</a>. Actor-manager Konrad Ackermann began construction of Germany's first permanent national theatre in Hamburg, established by Johann Friedrich Löwen. The owners of the new <a href="Hamburg_National_Theatre" title="Hamburg National Theatre">Hamburg National Theatre</a> hired Lessing as the theatre's critic of plays and acting, an activity later known as <a href="Dramaturgy" title="Dramaturgy">dramaturgy</a> (based on his own words), making Lessing the very first <a href="Dramaturge" title="Dramaturge">dramaturge</a>. The theatre's main backer was <a href="Abel_Seyler" title="Abel Seyler">Abel Seyler</a>, a former currency speculator who since became known as "the leading patron of German theatre."<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There he met <a href="Eva_K%C3%B6nig" title="Eva König">Eva König</a>, his future wife. His work in Hamburg formed the basis of his pioneering work on drama, titled <i><a href="Hamburgische_Dramaturgie" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamburgische Dramaturgie">Hamburgische Dramaturgie</a></i>. Unfortunately, because of financial losses due to pirated editions of the <i><a href="Hamburgische_Dramaturgie" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamburgische Dramaturgie">Hamburgische Dramaturgie</a></i>, the Hamburg Theatre closed just three years later.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In 1770, Lessing became librarian at the ducal library, now the <a href="Herzog_August_Library" title="Herzog August Library">Herzog August Library</a> (<i>Herzog-August-Bibliothek</i>, <i>Bibliotheca Augusta</i>), in <a href="Wolfenb%C3%BCttel" title="Wolfenbüttel">Wolfenbüttel</a> under the commission of the Duke of Brunswick. His tenure there was energetic, if interrupted by many journeys. In 1775, for example, he accompanied Prince Leopold to Italy. Follower of <a href="Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a>'s philosophy,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on 14 October 1771, Lessing was initiated into Freemasonry in the lodge "Zu den drei Goldenen Rosen" in Hamburg.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In 1773, he discovered <a href="Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a>' <a href="Archimedes's_cattle_problem" title="Archimedes's cattle problem">cattle problem</a> in a Greek manuscript containing a poem of 44 lines, in the Herzog August Library in Wolfenbüttel. This problem would remain unsolved until 1880. In 1776, he married <a href="Eva_K%C3%B6nig" title="Eva König">Eva König</a>, who was then a widow, in Jork (near Hamburg). She died in 1778 after giving birth to a short-lived son. On 15 February 1781, Lessing, aged 52, died during a visit to the wine dealer Angott in <a href="Braunschweig" title="Braunschweig">Brunswick</a>.

</p><p>Lessing was also famous for his friendship with Jewish-German philosopher <a href="Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Moses Mendelssohn</a>. A 2003 biography of Mendelssohn's grandson, <a href="Felix_Mendelssohn" title="Felix Mendelssohn">Felix</a>, describes their friendship as one of the most "illuminating <a href="Metaphor" title="Metaphor">metaphors</a> [for] the clarion call of the Enlightenment for <a href="Religious_tolerance" title="Religious tolerance">religious tolerance</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was this relationship that sparked his interest in popular religious debates of the time. He began publishing heated pamphlets on his beliefs which were eventually banned. It was this banishment that inspired him to return to theatre to portray his views and to write <i><a href="Nathan_the_Wise" title="Nathan the Wise">Nathan the Wise</a></i>.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works">Works</h2></div>

<p>Early in his life, Lessing showed interest in the theatre. In his theoretical and critical writings on the subject—as in his own plays—he tried to contribute to the development of a new type of theatre in Germany. With this he especially turned against the then predominant <a href="Literary_theory" title="Literary theory">literary theory</a> of <a href="Gottsched" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottsched">Gottsched</a><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and his followers. Lessing's <i><a href="Hamburgische_Dramaturgie" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamburgische Dramaturgie">Hamburgische Dramaturgie</a></i> ran critiques of plays that were performed in the Hamburg Theatre, but after dealing with dissatisfied actors and actresses, Lessing redirected his writings to more of an analysis on the proper uses of drama. Lessing advocated the outline of drama in Aristotle's <i>Poetics</i>. He believed the <a href="French_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="French Academy">French Academy</a> had devalued the uses of drama through their <a href="Neoclassical_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoclassical theatre">neoclassical rules</a> of form and separation of genres. His repeated opinions on this issue influenced theatre practitioners who began the movement of rejecting theatre rules known as <i><a href="Sturm_und_Drang" title="Sturm und Drang">Sturm und Drang</a></i> ("Storm and Stress").<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also supported serious reception of <a href="William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a>'s works. He worked with many theatre groups (e.g. that of the <a href="Friederike_Caroline_Neuber" title="Friederike Caroline Neuber">Neuberin</a>).

</p>

<p>In Hamburg he tried with others to set up the <a href="German_National_Theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="German National Theatre">German National Theatre</a>. Today his own works appear as prototypes of the later developed bourgeois German drama. Scholars see <i><a href="Miss_Sara_Sampson" title="Miss Sara Sampson">Miss Sara Sampson</a></i> and <i><a href="Emilia_Galotti" title="Emilia Galotti">Emilia Galotti</a></i> as amongst the first <a href="Bourgeois_tragedy" title="Bourgeois tragedy">bourgeois tragedies</a>, <i><a href="Minna_von_Barnhelm" title="Minna von Barnhelm">Minna von Barnhelm</a></i> (Minna of Barnhelm) as the model for many classic German comedies, <i><a href="Nathan_the_Wise" title="Nathan the Wise">Nathan the Wise</a></i> (<i>Nathan der Weise</i>) as the first German drama of ideas ("Ideendrama"). His theoretical writings <i>Laocoön</i> and <i><a href="Hamburg_Dramaturgy" title="Hamburg Dramaturgy">Hamburg Dramaturgy</a></i> (<i>Hamburgische Dramaturgie</i>) set the standards for the discussion of aesthetic and literary theoretical principles. Lessing advocated that dramaturgs should carry their work out working directly with theatre companies rather than in isolation.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In his religious and philosophical writings he defended the faithful Christian's right for freedom of thought. He argued against the belief in <a href="Revelation" title="Revelation">revelation</a> and the holding on to a literal interpretation of the Bible by the predominant orthodox doctrine through a problem later to be called <b>Lessing's Ditch</b>. Lessing outlined the concept of the religious "Proof of Power": How can <a href="Miracle" title="Miracle">miracles</a> continue to be used as a base for Christianity when we have no proof of miracles? Historical truths which are in doubt cannot be used to prove metaphysical truths (such as God's existence). As Lessing says it: "That, then, is the ugly great ditch which I cannot cross, however often and however earnestly I have tried to make that leap."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In the final leg of his life, Lessing threw himself into an intense evaluation of theology and religion. He did much of his studying by reading manuscripts he found while working as a librarian. While working for the Duke, he formed a close friendship with a family by the name of Reimarus. The family held an unpublished manuscript by <a href="Hermann_Samuel_Reimarus" title="Hermann Samuel Reimarus">Hermann Samuel Reimarus</a> which attacked the historicity of Christian revelation. Despite discouragement from his brother <a href="Karl_Gotthelf_Lessing" title="Karl Gotthelf Lessing">Karl Gotthelf Lessing</a>, he began publishing pieces of the manuscript in pamphlets known as <i>Fragments from an Unnamed Author</i>. The controversial pamphlets resulted in a heated debate between him and another theologian, <a href="Johann_Melchior_Goeze" title="Johann Melchior Goeze">Johann Melchior Goeze</a>. In concern for tarnishing his reputation, Goeze requested the government put an end to the feud, and Lessing was silenced through a law that took away his freedom from censorship.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In response, Lessing relied upon his skills as a playwright to write what is undoubtedly his most influential play, <i><a href="Nathan_the_Wise" title="Nathan the Wise">Nathan the Wise</a></i>. In the play, Lessing set up tension between <a href="Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, <a href="Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, and <a href="Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> by having one character ask Nathan which religion was the most genuine. Nathan avoids the question by telling the parable of the three rings, which implies the idea that no specific religion is the "correct religion." The Enlightenment ideas to which Lessing held tight were portrayed through his "ideal of humanity," stating that religion is relative to the individual's ability to reason. <i><a href="Nathan_the_Wise" title="Nathan the Wise">Nathan the Wise</a></i> is considered to be the first example of the German "literature of humanity".

As a child of the Enlightenment he trusted in a "Christianity of Reason", which oriented itself by the spirit of religion. He believed that human reason (initiated by criticism and dissent) would develop, even without help by a divine revelation. In his writing <i>The Education of Humankind</i> (<i>Die Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts</i>), often translated as <i>The Education of the Human Race</i>, he extensively and coherently lays out his position.

</p><p>The idea of freedom (for the theatre against the dominance of its French model; for religion from the church's dogma) is his central theme throughout his life. Therefore, he also stood up for the liberation of the upcoming middle and upper class from the nobility making up their minds for them.

</p><p>In his own literary existence he also constantly strove for independence. But his ideal of a possible life as a free author was hard to keep up against the economic constraints he faced. His project of authors self-publishing their works, which he tried to accomplish in Hamburg with <a href="Johann_Joachim_Christoph_Bode" title="Johann Joachim Christoph Bode">C. J. Bode</a>, failed.

</p><p>Lessing is important as a <a href="Literary_critic" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary critic">literary critic</a> for his work <i>Laocoon: An Essay on the Limits of Painting and Poetry</i>. In this work, he argues against the tendency to take <a href="Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a>'s <i>ut pictura poesis</i> (as painting, so poetry) as prescriptive for literature. In other words, he objected to trying to write poetry using the same devices as one would in painting. Instead, poetry and painting each has its character (the former is extended in time; the latter is extended in space). This is related to Lessing's turn from French <a href="Classicism" title="Classicism">classicism</a> to Aristotelian <a href="Mimesis" title="Mimesis">mimesis</a>, discussed above.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Attack_by_Johann_Daniel_Müller">Attack by Johann Daniel Müller</h2></div>

<p>The <a href="Radical_Pietist" class="mw-redirect" title="Radical Pietist">Radical Pietist</a> Johann Daniel Müller (born 1716 in Wissenbach/Nassau, today part of <a href="Eschenburg" title="Eschenburg">Eschenburg</a>, deceased after 1785) published the following anonymous book against Lessing and Reimarus:

</p>

<ul><li>Johann Daniel Müller: <i>Der Sieg der Wahrheit des Worts Gottes über die <a href="Lie" title="Lie">Lügen</a> des <a href="Wolfenb%C3%BCttel" title="Wolfenbüttel">Wolfenbüttelschen</a> <a href="Librarian" title="Librarian">Bibliothecarii</a>,</i> [Gotthold] <i>Ephraim Lessing, und seines Fragmenten-Schreibers</i> [i. e. Hermann Samuel Reimarus] <i>in ihren Lästerungen gegen Jesum Christum, seine Jünger, Apostel, und die ganze Bibel.</i> 1780.</li>

<li>Cf. Reinhard Breymayer: Ein unbekannter Gegner Gotthold Ephraim Lessings. Der ehemalige Frankfurter Konzertdirektor Johann Daniel Müller aus <a href="Eschenburg" title="Eschenburg">Wissenbach/Nassau</a> (1716 bis nach 1785), <a href="Alchemist" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemist">Alchemist</a> im Umkreis [Johann Wolfgang] Goethes, <a href="Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalist</a>, <a href="Separatist" class="mw-redirect" title="Separatist">separatistischer</a> <a href="Chiliast" class="mw-redirect" title="Chiliast">Chiliast</a>, Freund der Illuminaten von Avignon ("Elias / Elias Artista") Dietrich Meyer (Ed.): <i><a href="Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietismus</a></i> – <i><a href="Herrnhut" title="Herrnhut">Herrnhutertum</a></i> – <i><a href="R%C3%A9veil" title="Réveil">Erweckungsbewegung</a></i>. <i>Festschrift für Erich Beyreuther</i>. Köln [Pulheim-Brauweiler] and Bonn 1982 (<i>Schriftenreihe des Vereins für Rheinische Kirchengeschichte</i>, volume 70), pp. 109–145, and p. 108 Silhouette of [Johann] Daniel Müller.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Selected_works">Selected works</h2></div>

<ul><li><i>Der junge Gelehrte</i> (<i>The Young Scholar</i>) (1748)</li>

<li><i>Der Freigeist</i> (<i>The Freethinker</i>) (1749)</li>

<li><i>Die Juden</i> (<i>The Jews</i>) (1749)</li>

<li><i><a href="Miss_Sara_Sampson" title="Miss Sara Sampson">Miss Sara Sampson</a></i> (1755)</li>

<li><i><a href="Philotas" title="Philotas">Philotas</a></i> (1759)</li>

<li><i>Fabeln</i> (<i>Fables</i>) (1759)</li>

<li><i>Laokoön oder Über die Grenzen der Malerei und Poesie</i> (Laocoön) (1767)</li>

<li><i><a href="Minna_von_Barnhelm" title="Minna von Barnhelm">Minna von Barnhelm</a></i> (Minna of Barnhelm) (1767)</li>

<li><i><a href="Hamburgische_Dramaturgie" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamburgische Dramaturgie">Hamburgische Dramaturgie</a></i> (1767–69)</li>

<li><i><a href="Emilia_Galotti" title="Emilia Galotti">Emilia Galotti</a></i> (1772)</li>

<li><i>Anti-Goeze</i> (1778) (written against <a href="Johann_Melchior_Goeze" title="Johann Melchior Goeze">Johann Melchior Goeze</a>, pastor in Hamburg)</li>

<li><i>Nathan der Weise</i> (<i><a href="Nathan_the_Wise" title="Nathan the Wise">Nathan the Wise</a></i>) (1779)</li>

<li><i>Ernst und Falk – Gespräche für Freymäurer</i> (1776–1778)</li>

<li><i>Die Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts</i> (<i>The Education of the Human Race</i>) (1780)</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="English_translations">English translations</h3></div>

<ul><li><i>Fables and epigrams</i>. London, Printed for J.& H.L. Hunt, 1825.</li>

<li><i>Laocoon: or, The limits of Poetry and Painting</i>, translated by William Ross. London, Ridgeway, 1836.</li>

<li><i>Nathan the Wise: a dramatic poem in five acts</i>, translated by Adolph Reich. London, A. W. Bennett, 1860.</li>

<li><i>Nathan, the Wise. A dramatic poem of five acts</i>, translated by Dr. Isidor Kalisch. New York, Waldheimer & Zenn, 1869.</li>

<li><i>The Education of the Human Race</i>, translated by Fred W. Robertson, M.A.. London, C.K. Paul & Co., 1881.</li>

<li><i>Plays of Lessing: Nathan the Wise and Minna von Barnhelm</i>, translated by Ernest Bell. London, G. Bell, 1888.</li>

<li><i>Selected prose works of G. E. Lessing</i>, translated by E. C. Beasley, B. A., and Helen Zimmern. London, G. Bell and sons, 1890.</li>

<li><i>Lessing’s Emilia Galotti</i>, with footnotes and vocabulary; New York, Hinds & Noble, 1899.</li>

<li><i>Lessing’s Nathan der Weise</i>, with footnotes and vocabulary. New York, Hinds & Noble, 1899.</li>

<li><i>Laocoon. An essay upon the limits of painting and poetry: With remarks illustrative of various points in the history of ancient art</i>, translated by <a href="Ellen_Frothingham" title="Ellen Frothingham">Ellen Frothingham</a>. Boston, Little, Brown, 1904.</li>

<li><i>Laocoon</i>, translated by Sir Robert Phillimore, London, G. Routledge & sons, 1905.</li>

<li><i>Minna von Barnhelm</i>, edited with an introduction, German questions, notes and vocabulary, by Philip Schuyler Allen. New York, Charles E. Merrill Co., 1907.</li>

<li><i>Minna von Barnhelm; or, Soldier’s fortune</i> translated by <a href="Otto_Heller_(author)" title="Otto Heller (author)">Otto Heller</a>. New York, H. Holt and company, 1917.</li>

<li><i>Nathan the Wise; a dramatic poem in five acts</i>, translated and edited by Leo Markun. Girard, Kan., Haldeman-Julius Co., 1926.</li>

<li><i>Laocoon, Nathan the Wise, Minna von Barnhelm</i>, translated by William A. Steel. London, J. M. Dent & sons, ltd.; New York, E. P. Dutton & co., inc., 1930.</li>

<li><i>Nathan the Wise</i>, translated by Berthold August Eisenlohr. Ann Arbor, Mich., Lithoprinted by Edwards Brothers, inc., 1942.</li>

<li><i>Nathan the Wise</i>, translated by <a href="Guenther_Reinhardt" title="Guenther Reinhardt">Guenther Reinhardt</a>. Brooklyn, Barron's Educational Series, inc., 1950.</li>

<li><i>Nathan the Wise; a dramatic poem in five acts</i>, translated into English verse by Bayard Quincy Morgan. New York, Ungar, 1955.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u6orAAAAIAAJ"><i>Theological Writings; Selections in Translation with an Introductory Essay</i></a>, by Henry Chadwick. London, A. & C. Black, 1956.</li>

<li><i>Lessing's Theological Writings</i>. Selections in Translation, edited by Henry Chadwick. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1957.</li>

<li><i>Emilia Galotti: a tragedy in five acts</i>, translated by Anna Johanna Gode von Aesch. Great Neck, N.Y., Barron's Educational Series, inc., 1959.</li>

<li><i>Emilia Galotti, a tragedy in five acts</i>, translated by Edward Dvoretzky. New York, Ungar, 1962, reprinted German Book Center, 2003.</li>

<li><i>Hamburg dramaturgy</i>, translated by Victor Lange. New York, Dover Publications, 1962. Reprint of Helen Zimmern's 1890 translation.</li>

<li><i>Laocoon: an essay on the limits of painting and poetry</i>, translated by Edward Allen McCormick. Indianapolis, Bobbs-Merrill, 1962.</li>

<li><i>Minna von Barnhelm: a comedy in five acts</i>, translated by Kenneth J. Northcott. Chicago, University of Chicago Press [1972]</li>

<li><i>Nathan the Wise, Minna von Barnhelm, and Other Plays and Writings</i>, edited by Peter Demetz with a foreword by Hannah Arendt. New York: Continuum, 1991.</li>

<li><i>Nathan the Wise, with Related Documents</i>, translated, edited, and with an introduction by Ronald Schechter. Boston/New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2004.</li>

<li><i>Philosophical and Theological Writings</i>, edited by H. B. Nisbet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.</li></ul>

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<ul><li><a href="Fable" title="Fable">Fable</a></li>

<li><a href="Greek_revival" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek revival">Greek revival</a></li>

<li><a href="Lessing_Monument" title="Lessing Monument">Lessing Monument</a>, Tiergarten, Berlin</li>

<li><a href="Lessing_Theater" title="Lessing Theater">Lessing Theater</a></li>

<li><a href="Pantheism_controversy" title="Pantheism controversy">Pantheism controversy</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("./mw/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("./mw/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("./mw/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("./mw/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}

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</style><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/Lessing">"Lessing"</a>. <i><a href="Collins_English_Dictionary" title="Collins English Dictionary">Collins English Dictionary</a></i>. <a href="HarperCollins" title="HarperCollins">HarperCollins</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLuckhurst2006" class="citation book cs1">Luckhurst, Mary (2006). <i>Dramaturgy: A Revolution in Theatre</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IM383Aa75AMC&dq=Dramaturgy%3A%20A%20Revolution%20in%20Theatre&pg=PA24">24</a>. <q>Gotthold Ephraim Lessing was the world's first officially appointed dramaturg.</q></cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCardullo1995" class="citation book cs1">Cardullo, Bert, ed. (1995). <i>What is dramaturgy?</i>. American university studies. New York: P. Lang. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8204-2177-3</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lamport, F. J. <i>Lessing and the Drama</i>. New York: Oxford UP, 1981. Print.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Wilhelm_Kosch" title="Wilhelm Kosch">Wilhelm Kosch</a>, "Seyler, Abel", in <i><a href="Dictionary_of_German_Biography" class="mw-redirect" title="Dictionary of German Biography">Dictionary of German Biography</a></i>, eds. <a href="Walther_Killy" title="Walther Killy">Walther Killy</a> and <a href="Rudolf_Vierhaus" title="Rudolf Vierhaus">Rudolf Vierhaus</a>, Vol. 9, Walter de Gruyter, 2005, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-11-096629-9</bdi>, p. 308</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lamport, F. J. <i>Lessing and the Drama</i>. New York: Oxford UP, 1981. Print.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFOscar_Patterson_III2017" class="citation book cs1">Oscar Patterson III (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LKEuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA169"><i>Rough Mason, Mason, Freemason, Accepted Mason</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 169. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780761869610</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://freemasonry.bcy.ca/biography/lessing_g/lessing_g.html">"Gotthold Ephraim Lessing"</a>. <i>2013</i>. Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 September</span> 2013</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFTodd2003" class="citation book cs1">Todd, R. Larry (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120314165516/http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/product/academic/biography/9780195179880.do"><i>Mendelssohn: A Life in Music</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j2Pf2yQipyUC&dq=mendelssohn&pg=PA1">1</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/product/academic/biography/9780195179880.do">the original</a> on 14 March 2012.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. <a href="Andreas_Dorschel" title="Andreas Dorschel">Andreas Dorschel</a>: Polemik und Schadenfreude. In: <i>Zeitschrift für Ideengeschichte</i> XIII/3 (Autumn 2019), pp. 117–122, esp. p. 119.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilson, Edwin, and Alvin Goldfarb. <i>Living Theatre: History of Theatre</i>. 6th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, 2012. Print.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karen Otterweell, <i>Lessing and the Sturm und Drang: A Reappraisal Revisited</i>, Peter Lang Pub, Inc., 2002. Print.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eckersley, M. 1997. Soundings in the Dramaturgy of the Australian Theatre Director. University of Melbourne. Melbourne. p 9.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gotthold Ephraim Lessing. "On the proof of the spirit and of power." <i>Lessing: Philosophical and theological writings</i>, p. 87. H. B. Nisbet (translator and editor). Cambridge University Press, 2005</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vallee, Gerard. <i>Soundings in G.E. Lessing's Philosophy of Religion</i>. Lanham: University of America, 2000. Print.</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li>Hazard, Paul. <i>European thought in the eighteenth century from Montesquieu to Lessing</i> (1954). pp 416–34 on his deism.</li>

<li>Nisbet, Hugh Barr. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oH1oAgAAQBAJ">Gotthold Ephraim Lessing: His Life, Works and Thought</a>, Oxford University Press, 2013</li>

<li>Liptzin, Sol. Historical Survey of German Literature. New York: Cooper Square Publishers, 1936.</li>

<li>Priest, George. A Brief History of German Literature. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1909.</li>

<li>Robertson, John. A History of German Literature. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1902.</li>

<li>Rose, Ernst. A History of German Literature. New York: New York University, 1960.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSime1882" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="James_Sime" title="James Sime">Sime, James</a> (1882). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim"><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Ninth_Edition/Lessing,_Gotthold_Ephraim">"Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim" </a></span>. <i><a href="Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. XIV (9th ed.).</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSimeRobertson1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="James_Sime" title="James Sime">Sime, James</a>; <a href="John_George_Robertson" title="John George Robertson">Robertson, John George</a> (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim"><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Lessing,_Gotthold_Ephraim">"Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim" </a></span>. <i><a href="Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 16 (11th ed.). pp. <span class="nowrap">496–</span>499.</cite></li>

<li>Tononi, Fabio. “Gotthold Ephraim Lessing on <i>Laocoön</i>: Empathy, Motor Imagery, and Predictive Processing”, in <i>History, Practice and Pedagogy: Empathic Engagements in the Visual Arts</i>, ed. by Susan Barahal and Elizabeth Pugliano. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2024, pp. 11–30.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">English <a href="Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original works by or about:

<div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/en:Author:Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing" class="extiw external" title="s:en:Author:Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Gotthold Ephraim Lessing</a></b></div></div></div>

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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/990">Works by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing</a> at <a href="Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Lessing%2C%20Gotthold%20Ephraim%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Lessing%2C%20Gotthold%20E%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Lessing%2C%20G%2E%20E%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Gotthold%20Ephraim%20Lessing%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Gotthold%20E%2E%20Lessing%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22G%2E%20E%2E%20Lessing%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Lessing%2C%20Gotthold%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Gotthold%20Lessing%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Gotthold%20Ephraim%20Lessing%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Gotthold%20E%2E%20Lessing%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22G%2E%20E%2E%20Lessing%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22G%2E%20Ephraim%20Lessing%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Lessing%2C%20Gotthold%20Ephraim%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Lessing%2C%20Gotthold%20E%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Lessing%2C%20G%2E%20E%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Lessing%2C%20G%2E%20Ephraim%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Gotthold%20Lessing%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Lessing%2C%20Gotthold%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Gotthold%20Ephraim%20Lessing%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Gotthold%20E%2E%20Lessing%22%20OR%20title%3A%22G%2E%20E%2E%20Lessing%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Gotthold%20Lessing%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Gotthold%20Ephraim%20Lessing%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Gotthold%20E%2E%20Lessing%22%20OR%20description%3A%22G%2E%20E%2E%20Lessing%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Lessing%2C%20Gotthold%20Ephraim%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Lessing%2C%20Gotthold%20E%2E%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Gotthold%20Lessing%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Lessing%2C%20Gotthold%22%29%20OR%20%28%221729-1781%22%20AND%20Lessing%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Gotthold Ephraim Lessing</a> at the <a href="Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/64">Works by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing</a> at <a href="LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <span typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/greatplaysfrenc00mattgoog#page/n237/mode/1up"><i>Minna von Barnhelm</i>, by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing</a> <span class="languageicon">(in English)</span></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/literaryandphil00mazzgoog#page/n8/mode/1up">Literary and Philosophical Essays: French, German and Italian, 1910, includes <i>The Education of the Human Race</i>, by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing</a> <span class="languageicon">(in English)</span></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/nathanwiseadram00jackgoog#page/n10/mode/1up"><i>Nathan the Wise</i>, by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing</a> <span class="languageicon">(in English)</span></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gkoehn.com/miscellaneous-translations"><i>The Parable of the Ring</i></a> <span class="languageicon">(in English)</span></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/laocoonorlimits00rossgoog"><i>Laocoon</i></a> <span class="languageicon">(in English)</span></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/dramaticworksge00lessgoog#page/n9/mode/1up">The Dramatic Works of G.E. Lessing</a> <span class="languageicon">(in English)</span></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gottholdephraim00zimmgoog"><i>Gotthold Ephraim Lessing: His Life and his Works</i> (1878)</a> by <a href="Helen_Zimmern" title="Helen Zimmern">Helen Zimmern</a></li>

<li><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zeno.org/Literatur/M/Lessing,+Gotthold+Ephraim">"Works by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing"</a>. <i><a href="Zeno.org" title="Zeno.org">Zeno.org</a></i> (in German).</cite></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/autoren/lessing.htm">Works by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing</a> at Projekt Gutenberg <span class="languageicon">(in German)</span></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gedichte.xbib.de/gedicht_Lessing.htm">All poems of Gotthold Ephraim Lessing</a> <span class="languageicon">(in German)</span></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.allnumis.com/coin/germany/5-reichsmark-1929-a-200th-birth-anniversary-of-gotthold-lessing-29566">Coin to commemorate his 200th birth anniversary</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing38" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><i><a href="Miss_Sara_Sampson" title="Miss Sara Sampson">Miss Sara Sampson</a></i> (1755)</li>

<li><i><a href="Minna_von_Barnhelm" title="Minna von Barnhelm">Minna von Barnhelm</a></i> (1767)</li>

<li><i><a href="Hamburg_Dramaturgy" title="Hamburg Dramaturgy">Hamburg Dramaturgy</a></i> (1767–69)</li>

<li><i><a href="Emilia_Galotti" title="Emilia Galotti">Emilia Galotti</a></i> (1772)</li>

<li><i><a href="Nathan_the_Wise" title="Nathan the Wise">Nathan the Wise</a></i> (1779)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Hamburg_National_Theatre" title="Hamburg National Theatre">Hamburg National Theatre</a></li>

<li><a href="Eva_K%C3%B6nig" title="Eva König">Eva König</a> (wife)</li>

<li><a href="Lessing_Monument" title="Lessing Monument">Lessing Monument</a></li>

<li><a href="Lessing_Theater" title="Lessing Theater">Lessing Theater</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Age_of_Enlightenment295" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Age_of_Enlightenment295" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics295" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Atheism_during_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Atheism during the Age of Enlightenment">Atheism</a></li>

<li><a href="Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li>

<li><a href="Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicism</a></li>

<li><a href="Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a></li>

<li><a href="Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li>

<li><a href="Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li>

<li><a href="Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>

<li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="Encyclop%C3%A9distes" title="Encyclopédistes">Encyclopédistes</a></i></span></li>

<li><a href="Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">Enlightened absolutism</a></li>

<li><span title="Hebrew-language text"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></i></span></li>

<li><a href="Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li>

<li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="Libert%C3%A9%2C_%C3%A9galit%C3%A9%2C_fraternit%C3%A9" title="Liberté, égalité, fraternité">Liberté, égalité, fraternité</a></i></span></li>

<li><i><a href="Lumi%C3%A8res" title="Lumières">Lumières</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Cartesian_doubt" title="Cartesian doubt">Methodological skepticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Midlands_Enlightenment" title="Midlands Enlightenment">Midlands</a></li>

<li><a href="Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li>

<li><a href="Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Rationality" title="Rationality">Rationality</a></li>

<li><a href="Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li>

<li><a href="Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li>

<li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="Sapere_aude" title="Sapere aude">Sapere aude</a></i></span></li>

<li><a href="Science_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Science in the Age of Enlightenment">Science</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li>

<li><a href="Spanish_American_Enlightenment" title="Spanish American Enlightenment">Spanish America</a></li>

<li><a href="Universality_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Universality (philosophy)">Universality</a></li>

<li><a href="Utopianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopianism">Utopianism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Thinkers295" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Thinkers</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">England</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Joseph_Addison" title="Joseph Addison">Addison</a></li>

<li><a href="Anthony_Ashley-Cooper%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Shaftesbury" title="Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury">Ashley-Cooper</a></li>

<li><a href="Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Bacon</a></li>

<li><a href="Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li>

<li><a href="Anthony_Collins_(philosopher)" title="Anthony Collins (philosopher)">Collins</a></li>

<li><a href="Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Gibbon</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Harrington_(author)" title="James Harrington (author)">Harrington</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Hooke</a></li>

<li><a href="Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Johnson</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li>

<li><a href="Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Price" title="Richard Price">Price</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Priestley</a></li>

<li><a href="Joshua_Reynolds" title="Joshua Reynolds">Reynolds</a></li>

<li><a href="Algernon_Sidney" title="Algernon Sidney">Sidney</a></li>

<li><a href="Matthew_Tindal" title="Matthew Tindal">Tindal</a></li>

<li><a href="Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Jean_le_Rond_d'Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">d'Alembert</a></li>

<li><a href="Ren%C3%A9_Louis_de_Voyer_de_Paulmy_d'Argenson" class="mw-redirect" title="René Louis de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson">d'Argenson</a></li>

<li><a href="Pierre_Bayle" title="Pierre Bayle">Bayle</a></li>

<li><a href="Pierre_Beaumarchais" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Beaumarchais">Beaumarchais</a></li>

<li><a href="Nicolas_Chamfort" title="Nicolas Chamfort">Chamfort</a></li>

<li><a href="%C3%89milie_du_Ch%C3%A2telet" title="Émilie du Châtelet">Châtelet</a></li>

<li><a href="%C3%89tienne_Bonnot_de_Condillac" title="Étienne Bonnot de Condillac">Condillac</a></li>

<li><a href="Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li>

<li><a href="Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li>

<li><a href="Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a></li>

<li><a href="Bernard_Le_Bovier_de_Fontenelle" title="Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle">Fontenelle</a></li>

<li><a href="Olympe_de_Gouges" title="Olympe de Gouges">Gouges</a></li>

<li><a href="Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li>

<li><a href="Baron_d'Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">d'Holbach</a></li>

<li><a href="Louis_de_Jaucourt" title="Louis de Jaucourt">Jaucourt</a></li>

<li><a href="Julien_Offray_de_La_Mettrie" title="Julien Offray de La Mettrie">La Mettrie</a></li>

<li><a href="Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Lavoisier</a></li>

<li><a href="Georges-Louis_Leclerc%2C_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Leclerc</a></li>

<li><a href="Gabriel_Bonnot_de_Mably" title="Gabriel Bonnot de Mably">Mably</a></li>

<li><a href="Sylvain_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Sylvain Maréchal">Maréchal</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean_Meslier" title="Jean Meslier">Meslier</a></li>

<li><a href="Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li>

<li><a href="%C3%89tienne-Gabriel_Morelly" title="Étienne-Gabriel Morelly">Morelly</a></li>

<li><a href="Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Pascal</a></li>

<li><a href="Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">Quesnay</a></li>

<li><a href="Guillaume_Thomas_Fran%C3%A7ois_Raynal" title="Guillaume Thomas François Raynal">Raynal</a></li>

<li><a href="Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Turgot</a></li>

<li><a href="Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geneva</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Firmin_Abauzit" title="Firmin Abauzit">Abauzit</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Bonnet" title="Charles Bonnet">Bonnet</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean-Jacques_Burlamaqui" title="Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui">Burlamaqui</a></li>

<li><a href="Pierre_Pr%C3%A9vost_(physicist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Prévost (physicist)">Prévost</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li>

<li><a href="Horace_B%C3%A9n%C3%A9dict_de_Saussure" title="Horace Bénédict de Saussure">Saussure</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li>

<li><a href="Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li>

<li><a href="Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Humboldt</a></li>

<li><a href="Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li>

<li><a href="Georg_Christoph_Lichtenberg" title="Georg Christoph Lichtenberg">Lichtenberg</a></li>

<li><a href="Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Mendelssohn</a></li>

<li><a href="Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li>

<li><a href="Christian_Thomasius" title="Christian Thomasius">Thomasius</a></li>

<li><a href="Adam_Weishaupt" title="Adam Weishaupt">Weishaupt</a></li>

<li><a href="Christoph_Martin_Wieland" title="Christoph Martin Wieland">Wieland</a></li>

<li><a href="Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Modern_Greek_Enlightenment" title="Modern Greek Enlightenment">Greece</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Theoklitos_Farmakidis" title="Theoklitos Farmakidis">Farmakidis</a></li>

<li><a href="Rigas_Feraios" title="Rigas Feraios">Feraios</a></li>

<li><a href="Theophilos_Kairis" title="Theophilos Kairis">Kairis</a></li>

<li><a href="Adamantios_Korais" title="Adamantios Korais">Korais</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ireland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Boyle</a></li>

<li><a href="Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li>

<li><a href="Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift">Swift</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Toland" title="John Toland">Toland</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Italian_Enlightenment" title="Italian Enlightenment">Italy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li>

<li><a href="Ferdinando_Galiani" title="Ferdinando Galiani">Galiani</a></li>

<li><a href="Luigi_Galvani" title="Luigi Galvani">Galvani</a></li>

<li><a href="Antonio_Genovesi" title="Antonio Genovesi">Genovesi</a></li>

<li><a href="Francesco_Mario_Pagano" title="Francesco Mario Pagano">Pagano</a></li>

<li><a href="Pietro_Verri" title="Pietro Verri">Verri</a></li>

<li><a href="Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Volta</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Netherlands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Balthasar_Bekker" title="Balthasar Bekker">Bekker</a></li>

<li><a href="Pieter_de_la_Court" title="Pieter de la Court">de la Court</a></li>

<li><a href="Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li>

<li><a href="Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Huygens</a></li>

<li><a href="Adriaan_Koerbagh" title="Adriaan Koerbagh">Koerbagh</a></li>

<li><a href="Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Leeuwenhoek</a></li>

<li><a href="Bernard_Mandeville" title="Bernard Mandeville">Mandeville</a></li>

<li><a href="Lodewijk_Meyer" title="Lodewijk Meyer">Meyer</a></li>

<li><a href="Bernard_Nieuwentyt" title="Bernard Nieuwentyt">Nieuwentyt</a></li>

<li><a href="Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li>

<li><a href="Jan_Swammerdam" title="Jan Swammerdam">Swammerdam</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Enlightenment_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment in Poland">Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Kołłątaj</a></li>

<li><a href="Stanis%C5%82aw_Konarski" title="Stanisław Konarski">Konarski</a></li>

<li><a href="Ignacy_Krasicki" title="Ignacy Krasicki">Krasicki</a></li>

<li><a href="Julian_Ursyn_Niemcewicz" title="Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz">Niemcewicz</a></li>

<li><a href="Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Poniatowski</a></li>

<li><a href="J%C4%99drzej_%C5%9Aniadecki" title="Jędrzej Śniadecki">Śniadecki</a></li>

<li><a href="Stanis%C5%82aw_Staszic" title="Stanisław Staszic">Staszic</a></li>

<li><a href="J%C3%B3zef_Wybicki" title="Józef Wybicki">Wybicki</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portugal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Sebasti%C3%A3o_Jos%C3%A9_de_Carvalho_e_Melo%2C_1st_Marquis_of_Pombal" title="Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal">Carvalho e Melo</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Romania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ion_Budai-Deleanu" title="Ion Budai-Deleanu">Budai-Deleanu</a></li>

<li><a href="Dimitrie_Cantemir" title="Dimitrie Cantemir">Cantemir</a></li>

<li><a href="Dinicu_Golescu" title="Dinicu Golescu">Golescu</a></li>

<li><a href="Petru_Maior" title="Petru Maior">Maior</a></li>

<li><a href="Samuil_Micu-Klein" title="Samuil Micu-Klein">Micu-Klein</a></li>

<li><a href="Gheorghe_%C8%98incai" title="Gheorghe Șincai">Șincai</a></li>

<li><a href="Ien%C4%83chi%C8%9B%C4%83_V%C4%83c%C4%83rescu" title="Ienăchiță Văcărescu">Văcărescu</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Russian_Enlightenment" title="Russian Enlightenment">Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine II</a></li>

<li><a href="Denis_Fonvizin" title="Denis Fonvizin">Fonvizin</a></li>

<li><a href="Antiochus_Kantemir" title="Antiochus Kantemir">Kantemir</a></li>

<li><a href="Mikhail_Kheraskov" title="Mikhail Kheraskov">Kheraskov</a></li>

<li><a href="Mikhail_Lomonosov" title="Mikhail Lomonosov">Lomonosov</a></li>

<li><a href="Nikolay_Novikov" title="Nikolay Novikov">Novikov</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_Radishchev" title="Alexander Radishchev">Radishchev</a></li>

<li><a href="Yekaterina_Vorontsova-Dashkova" title="Yekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova">Vorontsova-Dashkova</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Scotland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="James_Beattie_(poet)" title="James Beattie (poet)">Beattie</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_Black" title="Joseph Black">Black</a></li>

<li><a href="Hugh_Blair" title="Hugh Blair">Blair</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Boswell" title="James Boswell">Boswell</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Burnett%2C_Lord_Monboddo" title="James Burnett, Lord Monboddo">Burnett</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Burns</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Cullen" title="William Cullen">Cullen</a></li>

<li><a href="Adam_Ferguson" title="Adam Ferguson">Ferguson</a></li>

<li><a href="Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Hutcheson</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">Hutton</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Playfair" title="John Playfair">Playfair</a></li>

<li><a href="Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li>

<li><a href="Dugald_Stewart" title="Dugald Stewart">Stewart</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Dositej_Obradovi%C4%87" title="Dositej Obradović">Obradović</a></li>

<li><a href="Avram_Mrazovi%C4%87" title="Avram Mrazović">Mrazović</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Spain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Jos%C3%A9_Cadalso" title="José Cadalso">Cadalso</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_III_of_Spain" title="Charles III of Spain">Charles III</a></li>

<li><a href="Benito_Jer%C3%B3nimo_Feij%C3%B3o_y_Montenegro" title="Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro">Feijóo y Montenegro</a></li>

<li><a href="Leandro_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_Morat%C3%ADn" title="Leandro Fernández de Moratín">Moratín</a></li>

<li><a href="Gaspar_Melchor_de_Jovellanos" title="Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos">Jovellanos</a></li>

<li><a href="Diego_de_Torres_Villarroel" title="Diego de Torres Villarroel">Villarroel</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Mason" title="George Mason">Mason</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div><div style="position:relative;">

<div style="position:absolute;right:0;"><b>Romanticism →</b></div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li></ul>

</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="German-language_literature213" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="German-language_literature213" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="German_literature" title="German literature">German-language literature</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="German_language" title="German language">German language</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">History of Germany</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_Austria" title="History of Austria">History of Austria</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_Switzerland" title="History of Switzerland">History of Switzerland</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_Liechtenstein" title="History of Liechtenstein">History of Liechtenstein</a></li>

<li><a href="Old_High_German_literature" title="Old High German literature">Old High German literature</a></li>

<li><a href="Middle_High_German_literature" title="Middle High German literature">Middle High German literature</a></li>

<li><a href="Early_New_High_German_literature" title="Early New High German literature">Early New High German literature</a></li>

<li><a href="Sturm_und_Drang" title="Sturm und Drang">Sturm und Drang</a></li>

<li><a href="Weimar_Classicism" title="Weimar Classicism">Weimar Classicism</a></li>

<li><a href="Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Literary_realism" title="Literary realism">Literary realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Weimar_culture" title="Weimar culture">Weimar culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Exilliteratur" title="Exilliteratur">Exilliteratur</a></li>

<li><a href="German_pop_literature" title="German pop literature">Pop literature</a></li>

<li><a href="Austrian_literature" title="Austrian literature">Austrian literature</a></li>

<li><a href="Swiss_literature" title="Swiss literature">Swiss literature</a></li>

<li><a href="German_studies" title="German studies">German studies</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related categories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Austrian writers</li>

<li>German writers</li>

<li>Liechtenstein writers</li>

<li>Swiss writers in German</li>

<li>Category:Translators of William Shakespeare</li>

<li>Reformation era literature</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Minnesang" title="Minnesang">Minnesang</a></li>

<li><a href="German_courtly_romance" title="German courtly romance">Courtly romance</a></li>

<li><a href="Der_von_K%C3%BCrenberg" title="Der von Kürenberg">Der von Kürenberg</a></li>

<li><a href="Dietmar_von_Aist" title="Dietmar von Aist">Dietmar von Aist</a></li>

<li><a href="Reinmar_von_Hagenau" title="Reinmar von Hagenau">Reinmar von Hagenau</a></li>

<li><a href="Hartmann_von_Aue" title="Hartmann von Aue">Hartmann von Aue</a></li>

<li><a href="Walther_von_der_Vogelweide" title="Walther von der Vogelweide">Walther von der Vogelweide</a></li>

<li><a href="Wolfram_von_Eschenbach" title="Wolfram von Eschenbach">Wolfram von Eschenbach</a></li>

<li><a href="Albrecht_von_Johansdorf" title="Albrecht von Johansdorf">Albrecht von Johansdorf</a></li>

<li><a href="Heinrich_von_Morungen" title="Heinrich von Morungen">Heinrich von Morungen</a></li>

<li><a href="Gottfried_von_Strassburg" title="Gottfried von Strassburg">Gottfried von Strassburg</a></li>

<li><a href="Dietrich_von_Bern" title="Dietrich von Bern">Dietrich von Bern</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Nibelungenlied" title="Nibelungenlied">Nibelungenlied</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Simon_Dach" title="Simon Dach">Simon Dach</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Fleming_(poet)" title="Paul Fleming (poet)">Paul Fleming</a></li>

<li><a href="Hans_Jakob_Christoffel_von_Grimmelshausen" title="Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen">Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen</a></li>

<li><a href="Andreas_Gryphius" title="Andreas Gryphius">Andreas Gryphius</a></li>

<li><a href="Christian_Hoffmann_von_Hoffmannswaldau" title="Christian Hoffmann von Hoffmannswaldau">Christian Hoffmann von Hoffmannswaldau</a></li>

<li><a href="Johann_Michael_Moscherosch" title="Johann Michael Moscherosch">Johann Michael Moscherosch</a></li>

<li><a href="Martin_Opitz" title="Martin Opitz">Martin Opitz</a></li>

<li><a href="Hans_Sachs" title="Hans Sachs">Hans Sachs</a></li>

<li><a href="Angelus_Silesius" title="Angelus Silesius">Angelus Silesius</a></li>

<li><a href="Anthony_Ulrich%2C_Duke_of_Brunswick" title="Anthony Ulrich, Duke of Brunswick">Anthony Ulrich, Duke of Brunswick</a></li>

<li><a href="Georg_Wickram" title="Georg Wickram">Georg Wickram</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Barthold_Heinrich_Brockes" title="Barthold Heinrich Brockes">Barthold Heinrich Brockes</a></li>

<li><a href="Christian_F%C3%BCrchtegott_Gellert" title="Christian Fürchtegott Gellert">Christian Gellert</a></li>

<li><a href="Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Johann Wolfgang von Goethe</a></li>

<li><a href="Johann_Christoph_Gottsched" title="Johann Christoph Gottsched">Johann Christoph Gottsched</a></li>

<li><a href="Johann_Christian_G%C3%BCnther" title="Johann Christian Günther">Johann Christian Günther</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_H%C3%B6lderlin" title="Friedrich Hölderlin">Friedrich Hölderlin</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_Gottlieb_Klopstock" title="Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock">Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock</a></li>

<li><a href="Meta_Klopstock" title="Meta Klopstock">Meta Klopstock</a></li>

<li><a href="Jakob_Michael_Reinhold_Lenz" title="Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz">Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz</a></li>

<li><a href="Magnus_Gottfried_Lichtwer" title="Magnus Gottfried Lichtwer">Magnus Gottfried Lichtwer</a></li>

<li><a href="Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a> (Friedrich von Hardenberg)</li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Friedrich Schiller</a></li>

<li><a href="Johann_Gottfried_Schnabel" title="Johann Gottfried Schnabel">Johann Gottfried Schnabel</a></li>

<li><a href="Christoph_Martin_Wieland" title="Christoph Martin Wieland">Christoph Martin Wieland</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bettina_von_Arnim" title="Bettina von Arnim">Bettina von Arnim</a></li>

<li><a href="Achim_von_Arnim" title="Achim von Arnim">Achim von Arnim</a></li>

<li><a href="Clemens_Brentano" title="Clemens Brentano">Clemens Brentano</a></li>

<li><a href="Georg_B%C3%BCchner" title="Georg Büchner">Georg Büchner</a></li>

<li><a href="Adelbert_von_Chamisso" title="Adelbert von Chamisso">Adelbert von Chamisso</a></li>

<li><a href="Annette_von_Droste-H%C3%BClshoff" title="Annette von Droste-Hülshoff">Annette von Droste-Hülshoff</a></li>

<li><a href="Marie_von_Ebner-Eschenbach" title="Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach">Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_Freiherr_von_Eichendorff" title="Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff">Joseph von Eichendorff</a></li>

<li><a href="Theodor_Fontane" title="Theodor Fontane">Theodor Fontane</a></li>

<li><a href="Gustav_Freytag" title="Gustav Freytag">Gustav Freytag</a></li>

<li><a href="Jeremias_Gotthelf" title="Jeremias Gotthelf">Jeremias Gotthelf</a></li>

<li><a href="Franz_Grillparzer" title="Franz Grillparzer">Franz Grillparzer</a></li>

<li><a href="Jacob_Grimm" title="Jacob Grimm">Jacob Grimm</a></li>

<li><a href="Wilhelm_Grimm" title="Wilhelm Grimm">Wilhelm Grimm</a></li>

<li><a href="Gerhart_Hauptmann" title="Gerhart Hauptmann">Gerhart Hauptmann</a></li>

<li><a href="Christian_Friedrich_Hebbel" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Friedrich Hebbel">Christian Friedrich Hebbel</a></li>

<li><a href="Johann_Peter_Hebel" title="Johann Peter Hebel">Johann Peter Hebel</a></li>

<li><a href="Heinrich_Heine" title="Heinrich Heine">Heinrich Heine</a></li>

<li><a href="Georg_Herwegh" title="Georg Herwegh">Georg Herwegh</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Heyse" title="Paul Heyse">Paul Heyse</a></li>

<li><a href="E._T._A._Hoffmann" title="E. T. A. Hoffmann">E. T. A. Hoffmann</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_H%C3%B6lderlin" title="Friedrich Hölderlin">Friedrich Hölderlin</a></li>

<li><a href="Gottfried_Keller" title="Gottfried Keller">Gottfried Keller</a></li>

<li><a href="Heinrich_von_Kleist" title="Heinrich von Kleist">Heinrich von Kleist</a></li>

<li><a href="Nikolaus_Lenau" title="Nikolaus Lenau">Nikolaus Lenau</a></li>

<li><a href="Conrad_Ferdinand_Meyer" title="Conrad Ferdinand Meyer">Conrad Ferdinand Meyer</a></li>

<li><a href="Eduard_M%C3%B6rike" title="Eduard Mörike">Eduard Mörike</a></li>

<li><a href="Johann_Nestroy" title="Johann Nestroy">Johann Nestroy</a></li>

<li><a href="Wilhelm_Raabe" title="Wilhelm Raabe">Wilhelm Raabe</a></li>

<li><a href="Adalbert_Stifter" title="Adalbert Stifter">Adalbert Stifter</a></li>

<li><a href="Theodor_Storm" title="Theodor Storm">Theodor Storm</a></li>

<li><a href="Ludwig_Tieck" title="Ludwig Tieck">Ludwig Tieck</a></li>

<li><a href="Ludwig_Uhland" title="Ludwig Uhland">Ludwig Uhland</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ilse_Aichinger" title="Ilse Aichinger">Ilse Aichinger</a></li>

<li><a href="Ingeborg_Bachmann" title="Ingeborg Bachmann">Ingeborg Bachmann</a></li>

<li><a href="Hermann_Bahr" title="Hermann Bahr">Hermann Bahr</a></li>

<li><a href="Vicki_Baum" title="Vicki Baum">Vicki Baum</a></li>

<li><a href="Johannes_R._Becher" title="Johannes R. Becher">Johannes R. Becher</a></li>

<li><a href="Gottfried_Benn" title="Gottfried Benn">Gottfried Benn</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Bernhard" title="Thomas Bernhard">Thomas Bernhard</a></li>

<li><a href="Hugo_Bettauer" title="Hugo Bettauer">Hugo Bettauer</a></li>

<li><a href="Heinrich_B%C3%B6ll" title="Heinrich Böll">Heinrich Böll</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Brasch" title="Thomas Brasch">Thomas Brasch</a></li>

<li><a href="Volker_Braun" title="Volker Braun">Volker Braun</a></li>

<li><a href="Bertolt_Brecht" title="Bertolt Brecht">Bertolt Brecht</a></li>

<li><a href="Rolf_Dieter_Brinkmann" title="Rolf Dieter Brinkmann">Rolf Dieter Brinkmann</a></li>

<li><a href="Hermann_Broch" title="Hermann Broch">Hermann Broch</a></li>

<li><a href="Arnolt_Bronnen" title="Arnolt Bronnen">Arnolt Bronnen</a></li>

<li><a href="Hermann_Burger" title="Hermann Burger">Hermann Burger</a></li>

<li><a href="Elias_Canetti" title="Elias Canetti">Elias Canetti</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Celan" title="Paul Celan">Paul Celan</a></li>

<li><a href="Alfred_D%C3%B6blin" title="Alfred Döblin">Alfred Döblin</a></li>

<li><a href="Heimito_von_Doderer" title="Heimito von Doderer">Heimito von Doderer</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_D%C3%BCrrenmatt" title="Friedrich Dürrenmatt">Friedrich Dürrenmatt</a></li>

<li><a href="Lion_Feuchtwanger" title="Lion Feuchtwanger">Lion Feuchtwanger</a></li>

<li><a href="Marieluise_Flei%C3%9Fer" title="Marieluise Fleißer">Marieluise Fleißer</a></li>

<li><a href="Erich_Fried" title="Erich Fried">Erich Fried</a></li>

<li><a href="Max_Frisch" title="Max Frisch">Max Frisch</a></li>

<li><a href="Stefan_George" title="Stefan George">Stefan George</a></li>

<li><a href="G%C3%BCnter_Grass" title="Günter Grass">Günter Grass</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Handke" title="Peter Handke">Peter Handke</a></li>

<li><a href="Marlen_Haushofer" title="Marlen Haushofer">Marlen Haushofer</a></li>

<li><a href="Hermann_Hesse" title="Hermann Hesse">Hermann Hesse</a></li>

<li><a href="Georg_Heym" title="Georg Heym">Georg Heym</a></li>

<li><a href="Wolfgang_Hilbig" title="Wolfgang Hilbig">Wolfgang Hilbig</a></li>

<li><a href="Hugo_von_Hofmannsthal" title="Hugo von Hofmannsthal">Hugo von Hofmannsthal</a></li>

<li><a href="%C3%96d%C3%B6n_von_Horv%C3%A1th" title="Ödön von Horváth">Ödön von Horváth</a></li>

<li><a href="Ricarda_Huch" title="Ricarda Huch">Ricarda Huch</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Huchel" title="Peter Huchel">Peter Huchel</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernst_Jandl" title="Ernst Jandl">Ernst Jandl</a></li>

<li><a href="Uwe_Johnson" title="Uwe Johnson">Uwe Johnson</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernst_J%C3%BCnger" title="Ernst Jünger">Ernst Jünger</a></li>

<li><a href="Franz_Kafka" title="Franz Kafka">Franz Kafka</a></li>

<li><a href="Marie_Luise_Kaschnitz" title="Marie Luise Kaschnitz">Marie Luise Kaschnitz</a></li>

<li><a href="Erich_K%C3%A4stner" title="Erich Kästner">Erich Kästner</a></li>

<li><a href="Bernhard_Kellermann" title="Bernhard Kellermann">Bernhard Kellermann</a></li>

<li><a href="Hermann_Kesten" title="Hermann Kesten">Hermann Kesten</a></li>

<li><a href="Irmgard_Keun" title="Irmgard Keun">Irmgard Keun</a></li>

<li><a href="Sarah_Kirsch" title="Sarah Kirsch">Sarah Kirsch</a></li>

<li><a href="Egon_Kisch" title="Egon Kisch">Egon Erwin Kisch</a></li>

<li><a href="Siegfried_Kracauer" title="Siegfried Kracauer">Siegfried Kracauer</a></li>

<li><a href="Karl_Kraus_(writer)" title="Karl Kraus (writer)">Karl Kraus</a></li>

<li><a href="Else_Lasker-Sch%C3%BCler" title="Else Lasker-Schüler">Else Lasker-Schüler</a></li>

<li><a href="Kurd_Lasswitz" title="Kurd Lasswitz">Kurd Laßwitz</a></li>

<li><a href="Gert_Ledig" title="Gert Ledig">Gert Ledig</a></li>

<li><a href="Siegfried_Lenz" title="Siegfried Lenz">Siegfried Lenz</a></li>

<li><a href="Heinrich_Mann" title="Heinrich Mann">Heinrich Mann</a></li>

<li><a href="Klaus_Mann" title="Klaus Mann">Klaus Mann</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Mann" title="Thomas Mann">Thomas Mann</a></li>

<li><a href="Friederike_Mayr%C3%B6cker" title="Friederike Mayröcker">Friederike Mayröcker</a></li>

<li><a href="Christian_Morgenstern" title="Christian Morgenstern">Christian Morgenstern</a></li>

<li><a href="Erich_M%C3%BChsam" title="Erich Mühsam">Erich Mühsam</a></li>

<li><a href="Heiner_M%C3%BCller" title="Heiner Müller">Heiner Müller</a></li>

<li><a href="Adolf_Muschg" title="Adolf Muschg">Adolf Muschg</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Musil" title="Robert Musil">Robert Musil</a></li>

<li><a href="Erich_Maria_Remarque" title="Erich Maria Remarque">Erich Maria Remarque</a></li>

<li><a href="Rainer_Maria_Rilke" title="Rainer Maria Rilke">Rainer Maria Rilke</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_Roth" title="Joseph Roth">Joseph Roth</a></li>

<li><a href="Nelly_Sachs" title="Nelly Sachs">Nelly Sachs</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernst_von_Salomon" title="Ernst von Salomon">Ernst von Salomon</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Scheerbart" title="Paul Scheerbart">Paul Scheerbart</a></li>

<li><a href="Arthur_Schnitzler" title="Arthur Schnitzler">Arthur Schnitzler</a></li>

<li><a href="Helga_Schubert" title="Helga Schubert">Helga Schubert</a></li>

<li><a href="Kurt_Schwitters" title="Kurt Schwitters">Kurt Schwitters</a></li>

<li><a href="W._G._Sebald" title="W. G. Sebald">W. G. Sebald</a></li>

<li><a href="Anna_Seghers" title="Anna Seghers">Anna Seghers</a></li>

<li><a href="Berta_von_Suttner" class="mw-redirect" title="Berta von Suttner">Berta von Suttner</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernst_Toller" title="Ernst Toller">Ernst Toller</a></li>

<li><a href="Georg_Trakl" title="Georg Trakl">Georg Trakl</a></li>

<li><a href="Kurt_Tucholsky" title="Kurt Tucholsky">Kurt Tucholsky</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Walser" title="Robert Walser">Robert Walser</a></li>

<li><a href="Josef_Weinheber" title="Josef Weinheber">Josef Weinheber</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Weiss" title="Peter Weiss">Peter Weiss</a></li>

<li><a href="Franz_Werfel" title="Franz Werfel">Franz Werfel</a></li>

<li><a href="Christa_Wolf" title="Christa Wolf">Christa Wolf</a></li>

<li><a href="Stefan_Zweig" title="Stefan Zweig">Stefan Zweig</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary<br>writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Zsuzsa_B%C3%A1nk" title="Zsuzsa Bánk">Zsuzsa Bánk</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Brussig" title="Thomas Brussig">Thomas Brussig</a></li>

<li><a href="Dietmar_Dath" title="Dietmar Dath">Dietmar Dath</a></li>

<li><a href="Jenny_Erpenbeck" title="Jenny Erpenbeck">Jenny Erpenbeck</a></li>

<li><a href="Rainald_Goetz" title="Rainald Goetz">Rainald Goetz</a></li>

<li><a href="Durs_Gr%C3%BCnbein" title="Durs Grünbein">Durs Grünbein</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Handke" title="Peter Handke">Peter Handke</a></li>

<li><a href="Judith_Hermann" title="Judith Hermann">Judith Hermann</a></li>

<li><a href="Elfriede_Jelinek" title="Elfriede Jelinek">Elfriede Jelinek</a></li>

<li><a href="Reinhard_Jirgl" title="Reinhard Jirgl">Reinhard Jirgl</a></li>

<li><a href="Wladimir_Kaminer" title="Wladimir Kaminer">Wladimir Kaminer</a></li>

<li><a href="Daniel_Kehlmann" title="Daniel Kehlmann">Daniel Kehlmann</a></li>

<li><a href="Esther_Kinsky" title="Esther Kinsky">Esther Kinsky</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_Kluge" title="Alexander Kluge">Alexander Kluge</a></li>

<li><a href="Barbara_K%C3%B6hler" title="Barbara Köhler">Barbara Köhler</a></li>

<li><a href="Christian_Kracht" title="Christian Kracht">Christian Kracht</a></li>

<li><a href="Monika_Maron" title="Monika Maron">Monika Maron</a></li>

<li><a href="Clemens_Meyer" title="Clemens Meyer">Clemens Meyer</a></li>

<li><a href="Ter%C3%A9zia_Mora" title="Terézia Mora">Terézia Mora</a></li>

<li><a href="Herta_M%C3%BCller" title="Herta Müller">Herta Müller</a></li>

<li><a href="Sharon_Dodua_Otoo" title="Sharon Dodua Otoo">Sharon Dodua Otoo</a></li>

<li><a href="Emine_Sevgi_%C3%96zdamar" title="Emine Sevgi Özdamar">Emine Sevgi Özdamar</a></li>

<li><a href="Teresa_Pr%C3%A4auer" title="Teresa Präauer">Teresa Präauer</a></li>

<li><a href="Julya_Rabinowich" title="Julya Rabinowich">Julya Rabinowich</a></li>

<li><a href="Rafik_Schami" title="Rafik Schami">Rafik Schami</a></li>

<li><a href="Ingo_Schulze" title="Ingo Schulze">Ingo Schulze</a></li>

<li><a href="Lutz_Seiler" title="Lutz Seiler">Lutz Seiler</a></li>

<li><a href="Clemens_J._Setz" title="Clemens J. Setz">Clemens J. Setz</a></li>

<li><a href="Botho_Strauss" title="Botho Strauss">Botho Strauss</a></li>

<li><a href="Yoko_Tawada" title="Yoko Tawada">Yoko Tawada</a></li>

<li><a href="Ilija_Trojanow" title="Ilija Trojanow">Ilija Trojanow</a></li>

<li><a href="Jan_Wagner_(poet)" title="Jan Wagner (poet)">Jan Wagner</a></li>

<li><a href="Martin_Walser" title="Martin Walser">Martin Walser</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Wawerzinek" title="Peter Wawerzinek">Peter Wawerzinek</a></li>

<li><a href="Wolf_Wondratschek" title="Wolf Wondratschek">Wolf Wondratschek</a></li>

<li><a href="Feridun_Zaimo%C4%9Flu" title="Feridun Zaimoğlu">Feridun Zaimoğlu</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">German-language<br>Nobel laureates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Theodor_Mommsen" title="Theodor Mommsen">Theodor Mommsen</a></li>

<li><a href="Rudolf_Christoph_Eucken" title="Rudolf Christoph Eucken">Rudolf Christoph Eucken</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Heyse" title="Paul Heyse">Paul Heyse</a></li>

<li><a href="Gerhart_Hauptmann" title="Gerhart Hauptmann">Gerhart Hauptmann</a></li>

<li><a href="Carl_Spitteler" title="Carl Spitteler">Carl Spitteler</a></li>